Terms explained
1.
Linguistic universals
Linguistic universal is a grammatical rule or linguistic feature that is
found in all languages. It is a pattern that occurs systematically across
natural languages. For example, all languages have Nouns and Verbs; all
languages have vowel sounds and consonant sounds. It was an American linguist
Joseph Greenberg (1915-2001) who proposed a set of 45 basic universals. Like
Noam Chomsky ( universal grammar)
Greenberg sought to discover the universal structures underlying human
languages. His approach was functionalist rather than formalist.
2.
Pidgin and Creole
Pidgin and Creole are two language varieties. Pidgin developed for some
practical purpose like trading among the people who did not have a common
language for communication. Sometimes it is a language between the rulers and
the ruled. Pidgin therefore is a link
language. When pidgin becomes the mother-tongue of a speech community it is
called Creole. There are many pidgins and creoles used worldwide where
colonization took place. A Pidgin English was spoken between the colonists and
natives.
3.
Langue and parole
Langue and Parole are two terms used by the structuralist linguist
Ferdinand de Saussure to refer to two aspects of language. Langue is the social
aspect and parole is the individual aspect of a language. Langue is the
conventionally accepted, fixed and abstract underlying system of rules. Parole
is concrete individual utterances of a language by its users.
4.
Three term labeling of consonant sounds
1.
Place of articulation
a.
Bilabial, b). labio dental, c). dental, d). alveolar , e). post-alveolar, f). palate-alveolar, g). palatal, h). velar i).
glottal
2.
Manner of articulation
Plosives, affricates, fricatives, lateral, nasals, semi vowels(frictionless continuats,
approximants)
3.
State of glottis
Voiced (vocal cords vibrate) and
voiceless (vocal cords are wide apart)
5.
Types of phonetics
1.
Articulatory Phonetics (deals with how speech
sound is produced)
2.
Acoustic Phonetics (deals with transmission of
speech sounds)
3.
Auditory Phonetics (deals with how speech sound
are received and perceived)
6.
Function class and formal class
7.
Processes of word formation
8.
Allomorphs
9.
T.G Grammar
Transformational Generative Grammar was proposed by Noam Chomsky in his
famous book “Syntactic Structures” in 1957. More discussions on T.G grammar
followed in another book “Aspects of the Theories of Syntax” (1965). He
questioned the structural approach to the study of Grammar.
The term “Transformational Generative” suggests that there are two
independent
10.
General Indian English (GIE)
Indian English is a term applied to the variety of English spoken in any
state in India. It is largely different from the RP with respect to vocabulary,
pronunciation and speech patterns. It developed as a result of the influence of
mother-tongue of the people in India. As a result of British
colonial rule until Indian independence in 1947, English is an official
language of India and is widely used in both spoken and literary contexts.
Idiomatic forms derived from Indian literary and vernacular language have
become assimilated into Indian English in differing ways according to the
native language of speakers. Nevertheless, there remains general homogeneity in
phonetics, vocabulary, and phraseology between variants of the Indian English
dialect
11.
Affix-switch rule
12.
Cases of English nouns
13.
Broad types of memory
14.
Diglossia
In sociolinguistics, Diglossia is
a situation in which two
distinct varieties of a language are spoken within the same speech community. Often, one form is the literary or prestige dialect, and the other is a common dialect spoken by most of the
population. Sociolinguists may
also use the term diglossia to denote bilingualism, the speaking of two
or more languages by the members of the same community
15.
Idiolect
In linguistics, an idiolect is a variety of language that is unique to a person, as manifested by the patterns
of vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation that they use. Conceptually, the language production of each person, the idiolect, is unique. The term was coined by linguist Bernard Bloch: from Greek idio(personal, private) + (dia)lect
16.
Implosives
Implosive consonants are stops (rarely affricates) with a mixed glottalic ingressive airstream mechanism. That is, the
airstream is controlled by moving the glottis downward in addition to expelling air
from the lungs. In the International
Phonetic Alphabet, implosives are indicated by modifying a voiced stop letter
with a hook top: ⟨É“ É— Ê„ É Ê› ⟩.
17.
Root/stem
The distinction is in the derivation. Stem-word
is essentially chopping of the affix/suffix and what remains. Root needs to be
a proper and valid word. That is, it must be morphologically the base. Root of went
is go,
but not the stem. When addition of suffix/affix transforms the root word, then
root and stem may not be same.
Root is the smallest meaningful part of a word.
Stem is
any morpheme which a syntactical affix can be added to
Base is any
morpheme which an affix can be added to.
Example : agree is a root and base at the same
time..it is a root because it is bare and an base because dis- and -ment can be
added to it.
disagree is a stem
because its is a verb and by adding ment it changes to an adjective
dis/ment are
affixes.
affixes can't stand
alone in languages. they are added to bases that changes both semantically and
syntactically.
Root
In morphology, the root is the unit that provides the core meaning and to
which affixes may be attached.
Stem
In morphology, the stem is the unit to which affixes are attached.
18.
Adjunct
An adjunct is a part of a sentence.
19.
Demonstrative pronoun and demonstrative
adjectives
Words which can be used as adjectives as well as pronouns. This,
that, these and those.
Demonstrative pronoun
They can be used to point out something or some one.
Example : This is my brother.
demonstrative adjectives
used in front of a noun as an adjective: Example : These boys are always
lazy.
20.
Phonology
21. Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics is a branch of applied
Linguistics that examines the interplay of language and society, with language
as the starting point.
Sociolinguistics is the study of
how language serves and is shaped by the social nature of human beings. In its
broadest conception, sociolinguistics analyzes the many and diverse ways in
which language and society entwine. It combines insights from a number of
disciplines, including linguistics, sociology, psychology and anthropology.
The basic premise of
sociolinguistics is that language is variable and changing. As a result,
language is not homogeneous — not for the individual user and not within or
among groups of speakers who use the same language.
22.
Types of sentences (word order, meaning and
clause structure)
Based on Word order
1. Statements (SVO)
2. Questions – a: Y/N Questions (Aux V + Sub +
Main V+(o)…..?)
B:
Information Questions (Question WorAux V + Sub + Main V+(o)…..?)
3.Imperatives (Verb+(o))
4.Exclamatory statement
Based on types of Clauses used
1.Simple – One Main Clause
2.Compund –More than one main clauses
3.Complex – combination of main clauses and
subordinate clauses
23. Conditionals
Sentences in which if or unless is used as conjunction for the purpose of
subordination
Type 1. Real condition : Example .If
you try hard, you will achieve your goal
Type 2. Unreal condition : Example .If
you tried hard, you would achieve your goal
Type 3. Improbable condition :
Example .If you had tried hard, you would
have achieved your goal
24.
Minimal pairs
25.
Consonant clusters
26.
Diphthongs
27.
Simple complex and compound words
28.
Inflectional and derivational suffixes
In grammar, inflection is the modification of a word to
express different grammatical
categories such as tense, mood, voice, aspect, person, number, gender and case.
The inflection of verbs is also called conjugation, and the inflection of nouns, adjectives and pronouns is also called declension.
An
inflection expresses one or more grammatical categories with a prefix or a suffix
In linguistics, derivation is the process of forming a new word
on the basis of an existing word, e.g. happiness and unhappy from happy, or determination from determine. It often involves the addition of a morpheme in the form of an affix, such as -ness, un- and -ation in
the preceding examples.
Inflectional
Morphemes and Derivational Morphemes
"The difference between derivational and inflectional
morphemes is worth
emphasizing. An inflectional morpheme never changes the grammatical category of a word. For example, both old and older are adjectives. The -er inflection here (from Old English -ra) simply creates a different
version of the adjective. However, a derivational morpheme can change the
grammatical category of a word. The verb teachbecomes
the noun teacher if we add the derivational morpheme -er (from Old English -ere). So, the suffix -er in modern English can be an inflectional morpheme as
part of an adjective and also a distinct derivational morpheme as part of a
noun. Just because they look the same (-er) doesn't mean they do the
same kind of work.
"Whenever there is a derivational suffix and an inflectional suffix
attached to the same word, they always appear in that order. First the
derivational (-er) is attached to teach,
then the inflectional (-s) is added to produce teachers."
(George Yule, The Study of
Language, 3rd ed. Cambridge University Press, 2006)
29.
Dialects
30.
Pitch
31. Assimilation
In Phonetics, change in a sound due
to the influence of a neighbouring sound is called assimilation
32.
Auxiliary verbs
33.
Types of clauses, noun clauses and adverbial
clauses, finite and non finite clauses
34. Duality of structure
"Human
language is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously. This property is
called duality(or 'double
articulation'). In speech production, we have a physical level
at which we can produce individual sounds, like n, b and i.
As individual sounds, none of these discrete forms has any intrinsic meaning. In a particular combination
such as bin, we have
another level producing a meaning that is different from the meaning of the
combination in nib. So, at
one level, we have distinct sounds, and, at another level, we have distinct
meanings. This duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical
features of human language because, with a limited set of discrete sounds, we
are capable of producing a very large number of sound combinations (e.g. words)
which are distinct in meaning."
(George Yule, The Study of
Language, 3rd ed. Cambridge University Press, 2006)
Definition : A characteristic of human language whereby speech can be analyzed on two levels: (1) as made up of
meaningless elements (i.e., a limited inventory of sounds), and (2) as made up
of meaningful elements (i.e., a virtually limitless inventory of words).
Duality of structure was coined by Anthony Gidden . The phrase is used in Chomsky by John Lyons to illustrate the differences between human
and animal communication. It is described there as "two levels of
grammatical structure." The first
is syntactic structure and the second is phonemes.
35.
Adjectival clauses
36.
Front vowels
